Review of Literature
Introduction
Several studies and research have been incorporated in this case study to have a better and thorough understanding of what factors and circumstances are causing the English as Second Language (ESL) student to continuously struggle in school. Does a student have a language-learning disability or is she merely in the normal process of second language acquisition?
The review of literature is categorized into four parts: facts about struggling readers, strategies for struggling readers forms of assessments, and conclusion. Following the conclusion is the Definition of Terms that have been defined according to the context of the study.
Several studies and research have been incorporated in this case study to have a better and thorough understanding of what factors and circumstances are causing the English as Second Language (ESL) student to continuously struggle in school. Does a student have a language-learning disability or is she merely in the normal process of second language acquisition?
The review of literature is categorized into four parts: facts about struggling readers, strategies for struggling readers forms of assessments, and conclusion. Following the conclusion is the Definition of Terms that have been defined according to the context of the study.
Facts about Struggling Readers
Many struggling readers soon become disengaged readers. Students think they do not have the ability to succeed and frequently give up avoiding unpleasant tasks (Demos and Foshay 2010). Applying motivation principles is critical as many struggling readers resist reading and reading instruction, become passive, or begin to act out or isolate themselves from reading and classroom activities (Ganske, Monroe Sc Strickland, 2003; Guthrie Sc Davis, 2003). Difficulty with reading and gaining information through text is also often associated with the disengaged student (Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2000). The relationship between reading and disengagement may include little enjoyment from reading, a history of frustration with reading, and selecting activities other than reading to occupy recreation or leisure time. Given the importance of reading to school achievement, limited success with reading is likely connected to poor grades, difficulty with curricular demands, and pervasive disenfranchisement with school requirements (Demos and Foshay, 2010).
Lyon (2000) stated that children raised in poverty, those with limited proficiency in English, those from homes where the parent's reading levels and practices are low, and those with speech, language, and hearing handicaps are at increased risk of reading failure. Scientific research can inform beginning reading instruction; that reading is a language-based activity. Lyon (2000) stated further that reading does not develop naturally, and for many children, specific decoding, word recognition, and reading comprehension skills must be taught directly and systematically. Evidence suggests that educators can foster reading development by providing kindergarten children with instruction that develops print concepts with the purposes of reading and writing, age-appropriate vocabulary and language comprehension skills, and familiarity with the language structure (Lyon, 2000).
Strategies for Struggling Readers
Lane, Pullen, Hudson, and Kobold (2009) examined the components of a one-on-one literacy tutoring model to identify the necessary and sufficient elements for helping struggling beginning readers. The tutoring components of interest included word work using manipulative letters, written word work, and a generalization component. Reading assessment data from 100 first-grade students, randomly assigned to four tutoring conditions and a control group, were analyzed. Following the treatment period, groups were evaluated on phonological awareness, sight word knowledge, decoding, and word attack. Results indicated that children who received all of the tutoring components performed better than those in the control condition across all four reading performance indicators under consideration (Lane, Pullen, Hudson, Kobold, 2009).
Lane et al. (2009) stated that the acquisition of literacy skills by struggling readers require thorough understanding of the alphabetic principle. In the literacy tutoring model, this understanding is developed through word work with manipulative letters and written word work during sentence writing. These instructional elements provide students with the practice they need to learn to decode words and to recognize high frequency words. That this can be accomplished within the context of meaningful text is of particular importance. Students developed these understandings with extended practice, but that practice was always linked to the books they were reading (Lane, Pullen, Hudson, Kobold, 2009).
Williams, Birdsong-Philips, Hufnagel, Hungler, and Lundstrom (2009) mentioned the importance of a word wall. They recommended using the word wall frequently as a teaching tool and help the students learn to use it as a resource for their writing. The word wall should be clearly visible and accesible for the teacher and the students and to be sure it is more than a simple display of words. As an example, high frequency words see can used can be used to teach students the double ee spelling of the long e vowel, and it is generative in the sense that the students can use it to spell a host of words with -ee, eed, -eek, -een, and eeze endings (tree, feed, week, green, freeze). Then show students how they can spell these examplar words to spell other words. Williams et al. (2009) stressed that word wall should be a dynamic tool- change it often; remove words that students know how to spell and replace them with exemplar words for new concepts. In a related article about word wall, Rycik (2002) considered word walls as a wonderful tool for helping students to become more proficient readers and writers and for helping them become increasingly self-reliant by using references independent of the teacher (Williams et.al, 2009).
Compton-Lilly (2008) mentioned the task of teaching struggling readers as challenging but insurmountable. There are several strategies that teachers can use to recognize, extend, and capitalize on the differences of brought by struggling readers:
- Teachers need to be expert observers of students as they interact with texts.
- Teachers need to speak with students, family members, and community members to better understand the ways of being tha children bring to the classroom.
- Teachers need to know their student's passions and dreams.
- Teachers must know the children in their class who struggle with reading.
- Teachers need to create opportunities for combining the student's ways of being with their learning of reading processes.
In her article, Quatroche (1999) explained the importance of one-on-one and small group tutoring for children who are struggling with reading. This provides the most individualized attention and extra instructional time these readers need. Quatroche stated further that instruction for struggling readers needs to be congruent with the regular classroom instruction so that the two programs are coordinated and should include instruction provided in the regular reading program and intervention program.
Quatroche also included four components essential and effective instructional practices in any program to help underachievers in reading:
- Letter-sound relationships and word identification on strategies should be taught explicitly. Teach phonological awareness, letters, words and word patterns. These skills are essential for success as a reader (Grossen, 1997).
- Provide repeated exposures to words to encourage mastery. Present words in small practice sets to provide scaffolding for struggling readers (Juel, 1996; McCormick, 1994).
- Explicitly teach strategies for understanding text and monitoring comprehension. Some strategies to teach include K-W-L, self-questioning, visual imagery, retelling, and Question-Answer relationships. Provide instruction that will help struggling readers transfer these strategies to other texts (Dole, 1996; Sorrell, 1996).
- Provide multiple opportunities for repeated reading of connected texts to develop fluency. Methods of encouraging repeated reading include paired reading, modeling, direct instruction, choral reading, neurological impress, and providing easy reading materials. Repeated reading also helps to increase the word recognition rate and accuracy of the reader (McCormick, 1994; Reutzel, 1994; Dowhower, 1994).
Assessment data should play an integral role in Tier 1 preventive practices (Stecker, Fuchs, and Fuchs, 2008). Students whose scores fall below a certain criterion score or below a particular percentile may be viewed as at-risk for reading difficulties or disabilities if prevrientive instruction is not provided. Progress Monitoring is an important component of Tier 1 services; it encompasses a system of brief assessments that are given frequently, at least monthly, to determine whether students are progressing through the curriculum in desired fashion and are likely to meet lon-term goals. Stecker et al. (2008) stressed further that although some screening or benchmark measures may be used on a more frequent basis for progress monitoring purposes, progress monitoring tools differ from typical screening and benchmark assessments in terms of duration of assessments and frequency of administration, and usefulness of information for determining both level and rate of student academic growth (Stecker, Fuchs, and Fuchs, 2008).
In a similar study about Progress Monitoring, Ysseldyke, Burns, Scholin, and Parker (2010) explained that student progress at Tier 1 is monitored with three benchmark assessments but weekly to twice-weekly measures are used for Tier 2 and 3. However, students receiving Tier 2 intervention should probably be assessed weekly because the more frequently the data are collected, the faster instructional decisions are made. Data collected to monitor student progress are used to determine if the current intervention is being effective. Students who are not making sufficient progress require additional support than they currently receive (Fuchs, 2003).
Conclusion
Researchers have identified several evidence-based practices that enhanced the academic performance and literacy improvement of our ESL struggling students. Continuous progress monitoring, running records, and oral reading fluency are some forms of assessments that could provide important information and feedback that could be used to design instruction. Small group intervention, one-on-one tutoring, explicit vocabulary and phonics instruction, regular peer-assisted learning, and repeated readings are some of the strategies that could improve the literacy learning of the students. By scaffolding instruction, teachers allow students to improve over time, to be more accountable, and take ownership of their own learning.
Definition of Terms
The terms related to the case study have been defined according to the context of the study.
assessment - the act of assessing; appraisal; evaluation.
case study - a study of an individual unit, as a person, family, or social group, usually emphasizing developmental issues and relationships with the environment, esp. in order to compare a larger group to the individual unit.
fluency - reading smoothly, quickly, and with expression.
guided reading - students work in small groups to read as independently as possible a text selected and introduced by the teacher.
individualized- to make individual or distinctive; give an individual or distinctive character to.
Informal Reading Inventory - An individually administered reading test composed of word lists and graded passages that are used to determine students' independent, instructional, frustration levels, and listening capacity levels.
intervention - intense, individualized instruction for struggling readers to solve reading problems and accelerate their growth.
progress - to grow or develop, as in complexity, scope, or severity; advance.
progress monitoring - a scientifically based practice that is used to assess students academic performance and evaluate the effectiveness of instruction.
running record - A running record allows you to assess a student's reading performance as she/he reads from a benchmark book.
scaffolding - the support a teacher provides to students as they read and write.
struggle - to contend resolutely with a task, problem, etc.; strive: to struggle for existence.
tutee - a person who is being tutored; the pupil of a tutor.
tutor - to act as a tutor to; teach or instruct, esp. privately.
word wall - an alphabetical chart posted in the classroom listing words students are learning.
Conclusion
Researchers have identified several evidence-based practices that enhanced the academic performance and literacy improvement of our ESL struggling students. Continuous progress monitoring, running records, and oral reading fluency are some forms of assessments that could provide important information and feedback that could be used to design instruction. Small group intervention, one-on-one tutoring, explicit vocabulary and phonics instruction, regular peer-assisted learning, and repeated readings are some of the strategies that could improve the literacy learning of the students. By scaffolding instruction, teachers allow students to improve over time, to be more accountable, and take ownership of their own learning.
Definition of Terms
The terms related to the case study have been defined according to the context of the study.
assessment - the act of assessing; appraisal; evaluation.
case study - a study of an individual unit, as a person, family, or social group, usually emphasizing developmental issues and relationships with the environment, esp. in order to compare a larger group to the individual unit.
fluency - reading smoothly, quickly, and with expression.
guided reading - students work in small groups to read as independently as possible a text selected and introduced by the teacher.
individualized- to make individual or distinctive; give an individual or distinctive character to.
Informal Reading Inventory - An individually administered reading test composed of word lists and graded passages that are used to determine students' independent, instructional, frustration levels, and listening capacity levels.
intervention - intense, individualized instruction for struggling readers to solve reading problems and accelerate their growth.
progress - to grow or develop, as in complexity, scope, or severity; advance.
progress monitoring - a scientifically based practice that is used to assess students academic performance and evaluate the effectiveness of instruction.
running record - A running record allows you to assess a student's reading performance as she/he reads from a benchmark book.
scaffolding - the support a teacher provides to students as they read and write.
struggle - to contend resolutely with a task, problem, etc.; strive: to struggle for existence.
tutee - a person who is being tutored; the pupil of a tutor.
tutor - to act as a tutor to; teach or instruct, esp. privately.
word wall - an alphabetical chart posted in the classroom listing words students are learning.
